Development in Language Learning Essay Example for Free

Development in Language Learning Essay Language educators in mono-linguistic societies world-wide face a commonly held myth: children are only able to handle one culture and one language at a time. No doubt this is due to the fact that these perceptions are largely formed by adults who have been brought up and conditioned to think in the modes of a one-language, one-culture society. Yet research has shown that children are much more flexible in these areas than most adults would give them credit for. Children world-wide learn two, three and more languages in their early years and while there may be some short-term developmental delay the long-term benefits from learning other languages is considerable. In the great majority of cases parents are the principle teachers of one or two of these languages and as the children’s main caregivers are ideally suited for the job. Parents, the most prestigious people from a child’s perspective, are the most important factor in molding a child in the pre-school years. The purpose of this paper is to take lessons learned from bilingual homes and apply them to second language learning at preschool. The core elements discussed will be the benefits of bilingualism and pre-literacy programs in the preschool years. There is no doubt that early literacy gives a marked advantage to children entering into primary school. It follows that the advantage would be double if literacy was promoted in two languages. What this paper seeks to show is that this can be done by using methods taken from successful bilingual households and mimicking them in second language education for preschoolers. Additionally, by providing early reading and listening activities linking the home and the second language, schools can make use of the one of the most powerful factors in the learning of a second language by preschoolers, parental support. Before these activities are outlined it is essential that we summarize the benefits of pre-reading skills in bilingual households. Discussion and Summary of Research 1. Benefits of Early Reading in Diverse Languages There is no doubt that given the environment and the proper motivational tools young children show an interest in reading and being read to. Parents who incorporate the reading of stories into a preschooler’s daily activities will see the increased chance of literacy at a young age. Theorists for years have been telling us about the benefits of reading to our child. Mackler (1997) claims that the more enjoyable a child’s experience with early reading the greater is the possibility that they will read with frequency in the future. She states that, â€Å"Young childrens self-initiated interactions with print at home are important behavioral indexes of emerging motivations for reading. Shared storybook reading plays an important role in promoting reading motivations; when the socioemotional climate is positive, children are more interested in reading and more likely to view it as enjoyable† (p. 69). Andersson (1977) concludes that â€Å"Parents who read, study, and discuss interesting or important subjects in the presence of their children and who answer their childrens questions create a close relationship with their children, a relationship which older children are quick to adopt with their younger siblings. † It only follows that if reading in one language to a child is profitable to the child’s future education reading in two languages is even more profitable. Andersson (1977) claims that early reading for children and their parents is an experience that brings joy and self-esteem to a child and that this is doubly so for children who have the opportunity to enjoy literature in two languages. In his study on family reading in two languages Andersson (1977) researched the early reading process of three families. He concludes that, â€Å"far from being a double burden, learning to read in two languages is a double joy, leading to a positive self-image. † Meier (2003) adds that children being read to in two different languages tend to learn about the distinctive cultures of the two languages. She claims that â€Å"From these book reading experiences, many children acquire an extensive book-based vocabulary and absorb important cultural lessons about things like gender roles, family relationships, and the nature of friendship† (p. 242). She also claims that these early reading experiences help children adapt to the school environment by teaching them to listen quietly and attentively, raising their hand when they wish to speak and remembering their questions until the end of the story (p. 243). One study done on low-income Spanish speaking immigrants and their children showed that reading done within the family helped considerably in expanding vocabulary of Spanish at home with a group of three-year-old children (Akers, Boyce, Cook, Innocenti, Jump Roggman, 2004, p. 371). Forty-seven mothers and their three year old children were analyzed while they shared reading time. The conclusions were that their children’s attention was expanded and that conversation and interaction within the family were enhanced (Akers, Boyce, Cook, Innocenti, Jump Roggman, 2004, p. 383). The most significant change was that the children’s vocabulary was significantly broadened (p. 384). Yet it is important to emphasize that investigation shows that while literacy can improve upon second language learning, bilingualism does not necessarily improve upon literacy. Bialystok (2002) contends that much of the literature surrounding literacy and bilingualism in fact argues that bilingualism promotes literacy and that this is not necessarily the case. She concludes that the relation between bilingualism and literacy depends to a large extent on certain skills developed by teachers and parents and that in this sense bilingualism at the time literacy begins can result in â€Å"an advantage and sometimes a disadvantage for bilingual children. Bilingualism clearly affects childrens development of literacy, but its effect is neither simple nor unitary† (p. 159). 2. Bilingual Families: What We Can Learn Although there is a great deal of literature on the benefits of learning a second language the deep grained fear in mono-linguistic cultures is that learning two languages at the same time is trying for that child. But some theorists claim that language learning for bilingual children is in fact quite the same for monolingual children (Paneque, 2006, p. 171). What is more important for authors such as Paneque (2006) are other factors such as â€Å"who provides the language input, or when the second language is introduced† (172). She adds that while some children may start the process of becoming bilingual at birth other start in their preschool years but that â€Å"Either way, both methods of becoming bilingual can be effective† (p. 172). Other studies claim that the fear of slow development caused by bilingualism causes children to know neither of the languages well. Mclaughlin (1995) claims that, in fact, it is uncommon that both languages be in balance. He claims that, â€Å"One language typically predominates in use and exposure. When this happens, elements of the other language can quickly be lost. The child can forget vocabulary and even rules of grammar† (p. 4). The author concludes that it is only a question of time before the other language catches up and evens out the results (p. 4). Genesee, Paradis and Cargo (2004) conclude that children are more than capable of learning more than one language, either at the same time or one after the other. While many people focus completely on teaching methodologies authors such as Walqui hold that the psychological side of second language learning is in fact just as important. Stresses and fears brought out in the home and school environment can result in problems for the bilingual child. Walqui claims that, â€Å"While many discussions about learning a second language focus on teaching methodologies, little emphasis is given to the contextual factors—individual, social, and societal—that affect students’ learning. There is no doubt that the success with which bilingual children develop both languages depends largely on two factors: school support and home support. While at home a child may speak one language at school they may speak another. In order for them to become proficient in the home language they must have the support of their family. Walqui (2000) claims that support from family is essential to second language learning. She states that â€Å"Some educators believe that parents of English language learners should speak only English in the home. However, far more important than speaking English is that parents value both the native language and English, [and] communicate with their children in whichever language is most comfortable. † There are a couple of important conclusions to make on the research done up until this time. The first is that the literature has shown us that the natural process of becoming bilingual can lead to inequalities in the learning of one language or the other at certain times. The second conclusion is that given the right support by the family and education institutions children can learn both languages to the satisfaction of both. The third is that communication through conversation and shared reading can greatly enhance a child’s vocabulary in either language. What we can take from these three points of bilingualism in preschoolers is that if the same circumstances of sharing and reading with bilingual children are applied to children learning a second language out of the home the possibilities of success would be enhanced. Application of Research Activities That Use the School and the Home to Promote a Second Language Playschool support, home support and shared reading are the three elements of the program this work will propose to use to develop the second language abilities of preschoolers at an age in which they may learn the basics of literacy in their second language at the same time they do so with their first language. Although there is debate on the language learning window and when it closes Paneque (2006) concludes that early childhood does seem to be the optimal time for language learning. She claims that it is â€Å"when the childs mind is still open and flexible, and not cluttered with all sorts of other learning, not to mention the societys views on which languages are prestige languages, and which ones are regarded by the society as of little or no importance† (p. 171). Before we go into the particulars of the proposed program first we should mention that it works around the presumption that the first priority to the family of a second language learner is to push their maternal language and excellence in that language. Indeed, Fortune (2003) states of English speaking students in immersion programs that parents must provided an atmosphere which will enhance their development of the English language. She claims that principally they should read and play games with them that will develop their literacy and vocabulary in English. She concludes that â€Å"Research shows that the stronger the development of the native language, the greater the proficiency in the immersion language, so children who enter an immersion program with a strong base in English will succeed more easily than those whose English skills are not as strong. † What is proposed here is that parents simply use one of the tools of promoting that language, pre-reading skills, to incite their preschoolers to open their mind to another language. So how can pre-reading be incorporated into a family that may not even understand the basics of the language being learned by the preschooler? This can be done by organizing a pre-reading program which connects the home and the preschool. Throughout the year teachers will choose a variety of simple word books that incorporate vocabulary the children have already learned in class. The teacher will read the story to the children and attempt to encourage their participation on discussing its characters, ideas and plot. Over the course of time they will do various activities that will work with the stories vocabulary and plot. These types of activity will obviously be dependent on the age group the teachers are working with. When the teacher is finished working with the story they will send the project on to its second stage – home discussion. The story will go home with the preschooler where it will be incorporated into family reading but it will not be the parents reading the story but rather the preschooler. The preschooler will be required to re-tell the story or act out the story as they remember it but by translating it into the families language. The family will be encouraged by the school to ask the child to instruct them on new vocabulary in the outside language. It is through activities like this that parents can help to support the second language by showing pride and accomplishment in what their child has learned up until that moment. Preschoolers in particular will be pleased that they have the opportunity to teach their family. Bilingual books may be used to further help the parents with the activity. Meier (2003) also provides an outline for choosing and presenting the chosen books that would help preschool and kindergarten teachers gain more interest from their students. She recommends that first and foremost a teacher choose a book that â€Å"relates to children’s lives† (p. 248). Secondly she recommends that teachers ask â€Å"creative and open ended questions† to stimulate interest in the story (p. 248). Lastly Meier believes that if a teacher makes a book come a live by using props it will garner a far greater interest in the story (p. 248). Summary It is through pre-reading programs like this that playschool teachers teaching a second language might harness the most powerful factor in a young child’s life, parental support, without disrupting the important mode of communication that is the maternal language. It is undeniable that both the reading and the acquisition of languages are of great educational importance. By combining the two and providing the right support at preschool and at home teachers and parents may be creating an atmosphere where these young children can take advantage of the flexibility their young minds allow them in language learning. References Akers, J. F. , Boyce, L. K. , Cook, G. A, Innocenti, M. S. , Jump, J. F. Roggman, L. A. (2004). Sharing Books and Learning Language: What do Latina Mothers and Their Young Children Do? Early Education and Development, 15 (4), 371-386. Andersson, T. (1977). A Guide to Family Reading in Two Languages The University of Texas at Austin Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University, Los Angeles, http://www. ncela. gwu. edu/pubs/classics/preschool/iii. htm Bialystok, E. (2002). Acquisition of Literacy in Bilingual Children: A Framework for Research Language Learning, 52 (1), 159–199.

Depression: Causes or Effects? Essay examples -- Biology Essays Resear

Depression: Causes or Effects? Depression supplies a distinct depiction of the brain equals behavior theory. The physiological characteristics that taint the diseased brain directly impact the thoughts and behaviors of the millions of sufferers. The genesis of this dehabilitating problem is both mysterious and complicated and I am not offering any sort of revelation in stating that it is a multi-factorial manifestation involving both biological and environmental components. The end product of these variable factors do, however, provide some common biochemical alterations in the brain that lend insight into understanding the reality and possible treatment of the disease. So, in the spirit of "working backwards," I will explore this end product. Perhaps the most popularized end-product of depression is the monoamine depletion or disturbance that is commonly detected in depressed persons. Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine have been identified as the main culprits, serotonin and norepinephrine being the most suspect. "Among the findings linking impoverished synaptic norepinephrine levels to depression is the discovery in may studies that indirect markers of norepinephrine levels in the brain-levels of its metabolites, or by-products, in more accessible material (urine and cerebrospinal fluid)-are often low in depressed individuals. In addition, postmortem studies have revealed increased densities of certain norepinephrine receptors in the cortex of depressed suicide victims" (indicating compensatory up-regulation) (1). It is not surprising that deficits in serotonin circuits are also seen in depressed patients, as these depletions may interact with and indeed be responsible for falls in norepinephrine levels (a phen... ...havior equals the brain. A simple point, granted, but it does explain why behaviors (perhaps instigated by stressful environmental "input") have the potential to physically change the brain. Likewise, as stated before, if the cause of depression is sometimes just an inherently sick brain, then it is understandable why some people have intense episodes of depression with no apparent environmental trigger. And if you cannot have a brain without behavior and you cannot have behavior without a brain, it would make sense that the two must interact, both serving as causes and effects working to perpetuate the vicious cycle of depression. Internet Sources: 1)Scientific American Article, 2)http://mymindfield.com/common_predispositions.html 3)http://www.eurekalert.org/releases/uwashpsp111299.html 4)http://www.psychological.com/psychological_disorders.html

The Battle of Tours, the Battle of Syllaeum and the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople

The Battle of Tours, the Battle of Syllaeum and the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople were important battles that averted the entry of Islam into Europe. Had these hostilities been lost to the Arabs, the present idea of European civilization would not exist. Islam and Islamic culture would be the dominant religion and way of life in Europe (both Eastern and Western Europe) and America. The Battle of Tours (also known as the Battle of Poitiers) is considered as one of the most decisive battles in history.On October 10, 732, the Frankish army under Charles Martel defeated the forces of Spanish governor Abd-er Rahman outside the city of Tours (Koeller, n. pag. ). The Battle of Tours was said to have retained Christian predominance over Western Europe by preventing the expansion of Islam in the said region (Culp, n. pag. ). By the 7th century, Islam was the most dominant religion in the Arabian Peninsula. During this period, Islamic armies had already conquered Persia, Syria, Egypt and North Africa and were about to occupy Constantinople and Spain.At the beginning of the 8th century, they had scaled the Pyrenees Mountains and were on the verge of entering France (Whittington, n. pag. ). The Septimania region of Southern France fell to the Moors in 719. Under the leadership of Al-Samh ibn Malik, they invaded the town of Toulouse in the Duchy of Aquitaine two years later. However, Al-Samh was defeated by Duke Odo of Aquitaine and eventually died of war injuries at Narbonne (Whittington, n. pag. ). Al-Samh's loss and demise did not stop Arab raids in France.Islamic forces reached the town of Atun in Burgundy in 725, forcing Duke Odo to align himself with Catalonian Emir Uthman ibn Naissa to maintain peace in the southern border of Aquitaine. But Uthman staged an unsucessful revolt against Al-Andalus governor Abd er Rahman, prompting the latter to go after Duke Odo in retalliation (Whittington, n. pag. ). Abd-er Rahman defeated Duke Odo at the Battle of Bordeaux, res ulting in the mass killing of Christians in the area. Desperate, Duke Odo sought the help of Austrasian Mayor-of-the-Palace Charles Martel. Martel agreed to help him, provided that he will bow down to Frankish rule (Whittington, n.pag. ). Martel and his army waited for Rahman's forces to arrive at Tours (Whittington, n. pag. ). Despite being composed of only 30,000 men, the Franks were well-armed – they had swords, axes, javelins and a small throwing ax called the fran-cisca (Wallechinsky & Wallace, n. pag. ). In addition, they knew the terrain very well and were properly outfitted for the bitterly cold weather. On the other hand, Rahman's 80,000-strong army were equipped with just light cavalry – spears and swords (Whittington, n. pag. ). The two forces only had minor encounters for seven days (Whittington, n. pag. ).Then, on October 10, 732, the Arabs assaulted the Franks. Due to their superior artillery, the Franks easily fended off the Arabs' charge. The Arabs trie d to attack repeatedly, to no avail (Wallechinsky & Wallace, n. pag. ). The Franks struck back as soon as the Arabs' stamina waned. They triumphantly defeated the Arabs and had Rahman captured and killed. The next morning, the Franks discovered that the Arabs had fled, leaving behind their plunder and their dead (Wallechinsky & Wallace, n. pag. ). Martel's victory in the Battle of Tours gained him the title â€Å"The Hammer. † In addition, France never experienced another Arab invasion.On the side of the Arabs, their defeat in the Battle of Tours severely destroyed their unity – a revolt by the Berbers (inhabitants of North Africa) ensued after Rahman's passing (Wallechinsky & Wallace, n. pag. ). Martel went on to crush Arab conquests at the River Berre and Narbonne. He also fought in Frankish expansion wars in Bavaria, Aquitaine, Provence and Alemannia. Martel's sons Carloman, Pippin the Younger and Grifo took over his territories after his death in 741. Pippin became the king of the Franks, while his son, Charlemagne, became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.However, it must be noted that two more generations passed before the Franks finally suceeded in driving the Muslims back beyond the Pyrenees for good (Whittington, n. pag. ). Historians often claimed that Europe never faced another Islamic threat after the Battle of Tours (Whittington, n. pag. ). This is true to a certain extent – the next Islamic threat that Europe faced after the Battle of Tours was the emergence of the Ottoman Empire (1299-1923). Furthermore, the Christians regained Spain from the Moors after the fall of Granada in 1492 (Whittington, n.pag. ). But the Byzantine empire (667 BC-1453) was also crucial for the presevation of Christian ascendancy throughout Europe. The Battle of Syllaeum (677) and the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717-718) were two important wars that averted the spread of Islam in Eastern Europe (Reference, n. pag. ). The Arab fleet a nd the Byzantine navy were constantly in battle with each other since 672 (Reference, n. pag. ). In 677, the Arabs attacked areas along the coast of Anatolia and the Sea of Marmara, as well as Constantinople and Anatolia itself.The Byzantine army found themselves fighting two different battles, as the Slavs were staging an assault of Thessalonica by land (Reference, n. pag. ). Byzantine forces under Emperor Constantine IV met the Arabs near Syllaeum (Reference, n. pag. ). They defeated the latter through Greek fire, a â€Å"burning-liquid weapon†¦that could continue burning even on water† (Reference, n. pag. ). As the Arabs were retreating, a storm sank almost all of their remaining ships. The Byzantine army then proceeded to conduct a land assault on the Arabs, finally defeating them in Syria.The Battle of Syllaeum was believed to have brought peace over Eastern Europe for almost 30 years (Reference, n. pag. ). But Constantine IV’s death in 685 was followed with power struggles for the Byzantine throne, making the Byzantine Empire more prone to defeat in the hands of the Arabs (Gregory, n. pag. ). Caliph Sulieman took advantage of this situation by sending 120,000 Muslim troops (headed by his brother Moslemah) in 717 in an attempt to occupy Constantinople for a second time (TheLatinLibrary, n. pag. ). An additional 100,000 Muslims with 1,800 galleys from Syria and Egypt served as reinforcements (TheLatinLibrary, n.pag. ). But Byzantine forces led by Emperor Leo III quickly defeated them through the Greek fire (TheLatinLibrary, n. pag. ). The vanquished Muslims later died of freezing and starvation outside Constantinople. Muslim troops from Adrianopolis that were supposed to assist them were destroyed by the Bulgarian army (a Byzantine ally) (TheLatinLibrary, n. pag. ). Several historians argued that had the Arabs won the Battle of Tours, the Battle of Syllaeum and the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople, the present concept of European civi lization would be altered dramatically.The Arabs would be able to spread Islam throughout European countries such as France, Germany, Russia and the United Kingdom. At most, Christianity would end up being a minority religion (Whittington, n. pag. ). America would have been discovered by a Muslim explorer and Islam would be the religion both taught and practiced by the settlers across the United States. Works Cited Culp, Reid. â€Å"The Battle of Tours. † 2008. CCDS. 28 April 2008 . Gregory, Timothy E.â€Å"Leo III and the Beginnings of Iconoclasm. † 19 November 2001. A Chronology of Early Byzantine History. 3 May 2008 . Koeller, David W. â€Å"The Battle of Tours: 732. † 1999. WebChron. 28 April 2008 . Wallechinsky, David, and Irving Wallace. â€Å"About the Battle of Tours in 732 between the Arab Army and the French Army led by Charles. † 1981. Trivia-Library. 28 April 2008 . Whittington, Mark.â€Å"Day of Decision: The Battle of Tours. † 8 Decem ber 2005. Associated Content. 28 April 2008 . â€Å"Battle of Syllaeum. † 17 December 2007. Reference. com. 3 May 2008 . â€Å"Greek Fire. † 10 March 2008. Reference. com. 3 May 2008 . â€Å"Islam and Europe Timeline (355-1291 AD). † n. d. TheLatinLibrary. 3 May 2008 .

No Child Left Behind Act as an Effect on Students with...

Since the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001, there has been debate and discussion about how the law will impact students with disabilities. There has been confusion and misinformation about NCLB requirements for children with disabilities. Myths have developed. The National Association of Protection Advocacy (NAPAS) has attempted to dispel these â€Å"myths† and misperceptions and to establish the â€Å"realities† (Smith, 2004). Inclusion consists of placing disabled or â€Å"learning-impaired† students in general education classrooms and integrating their learning experience with students in the general education classes (Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank, Smith, 2004). Inclusion is made up of four main components: 1) all students receive their education in their home school; 2) placement is based on the concept of natural proportions; 3) there is learning/teaching restructuring so that supports are created for special education in the general education setting; and, 4) placements are grade- and age- appropriate. There is a further distinction between inclusion, where students spend two-thirds or more of their time in a general education classroom, and full inclusion, where students with disabilities spend all their time in a general classroom. Mainstreaming consists in the practice of educating students with special needs in regular, general classrooms during specific time periods based on their skills. What are the pros and cons of inclusion? 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